Battle of Tours, 732 Muslims vs. Christians

The Battle of Tours was fought during the Muslim invasions of Western Europe in the 8th century. Armies Commanders at the Battle of Tours Franks Charles Martel20,000-30,000 men Umayyads Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqiunknown, but perhaps as high as 80,000 men Battle of Tours - Date Martels triumph at the Battle of Tours occurred on October 10, 732. Background on the Battle of Tours   In 711, the forces of the Umayyad Caliphate crossed into the Iberian Peninsula from Northern Africa and quickly began overrunning the regions Visigothic Christian kingdoms. Consolidating their position on the peninsula, they used the area as a platform for commencing raids over the Pyrenees into modern-day France. Initially meeting little resistance, they were able to gain a foothold and the forces of Al-Samh ibn Malik established their capital at Narbonne in 720.  Commencing attacks against Aquitaine, they were checked at the Battle of Toulouse in 721. This saw Duke Odo defeat the Muslim invaders and kill Al-Samh. Retreating to Narbonne, Umayyad troops continued raiding west and north reached as far as Autun, Burgundy in 725. In 732, Umayyad forces led by the governor of Al-Andalus, Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi, advanced in force into Aquitaine.  Meeting Odo at the Battle of the River Garonne they won a decisive victory and commenced sacking the region. Fleeing north, Odo sought aid from the Franks. Coming before Charles Martel, the Frankish mayor of the palace, Odo was promised aid only if he promised to submit to the Franks. Agreeing, Martel began raising his army to meet the invaders. In the years previous, having assessed the situation in Iberia and the Umayyad attack on Aquitaine, Charles came to believe that a professional army, rather than raw conscripts, was needed to defend the realm from invasion. To raise the money necessary to build and train an army that could withstand the Muslim horsemen, Charles began seizing Church lands, earning the ire of the religious community. Battle of Tours - Moving to Contact Moving to intercept Abdul Rahman, Charles used secondary roads to avoid detection and allow him to select the battlefield. Marching with approximately 30,000 Frankish troops he assumed a position between the towns of Tours and Poitiers. For the battle, Charles selected a high, wooded plain which would force the Umayyad cavalry to charge uphill through unfavorable terrain. This included trees in front of the Frankish line which would aid in breaking up cavalry attacks. Forming a large square, his men surprised Abdul Rahman, who did not expect to encounter a large enemy army and forced the Umayyad emir to pause for a week to consider his options. This delay benefited Charles as it allowed him to summon more of his veteran infantry to Tours. Battle of Tours - The Franks Stand Strong As Charles reinforced, the increasingly cold weather began to prey on the Umayyads who were unprepared for the more northern climate. On the seventh day, after gathering all of his forces, Abdul Rahman attacked with his Berber and Arab cavalry. In one of the few instances where medieval infantry stood up to cavalry, Charles troops defeated repeated Umayyad attacks. As the battle waged, the Umayyads finally broke through the Frankish lines and attempted to kill Charles. He was promptly surrounded by his personal guard who repulsed the attack. As this was occurring, scouts that Charles had sent out earlier were infiltrating the Umayyad camp and freeing prisoners and slaves. Believing that the plunder of the campaign was being stolen, a large part of the Umayyad army broke off the battle and raced to protect their camp. This departure appeared as a retreat to their comrades who soon began to flee the field. While attempting to stop the apparent retreat, Abdul Rahman was surrounded and killed by Frankish troops. Briefly pursued by the Franks, the Umayyad withdrawal turned into a full retreat. Charles re-formed his troops expecting another attack the next day, but to his surprise, it never came as the Umayyads continued their retreat all the way to Iberia. Aftermath While exact casualties for the Battle of Tours are not known, some chronicles relate that Christian losses numbered around 1,500 while Abdul Rahman suffered approximately 10,000. Since Martels victory, historians have argued over the battles significance with some stating that his victory saved Western Christendom while others feel that its repercussions were minimal. Regardless, the Frankish victory at Tours, along with subsequent campaigns in 736 and 739, effectively stopped the advance of Muslim forces from Iberia allowing the further development of the Christian states in Western Europe. Sources Battle of Tours: 732Decisive Battles: Battle of ToursBattle of Tours: Primary Sources

Google Books Free Essays

Tourism Operations In your own words please share with me your understanding on these concepts. I will be grading on depth of knowledge, practical examples and management techniques of each product or service. Please Use Weekly ADAIR, REPAY and Occupancy% PDF – Performance By Industry Segments For the Week of: February 03, 2013 – February 09, 2013 Forecasting Question: #1 – Your hotel is in Phoenix, Arizona. We will write a custom essay sample on Google Books or any similar topic only for you Order Now For the Week of: February 03, 2013 – February 9, you’re your Occupancy % is down but your ADAIR and Repay are up. Please share with me in a written response the reason for this variance. In other words why if your occupancy % is down would you ADAIR and Repay be up? If you were the General Manager what would you change or keep the same for next weeks rates and why? Tourist Target Markets – Here is the URL for Hotel Simulator, please review the tourist market segment section for next weeks final. Please copy and paste this URL into your browser to access. Http://www. Heterosexuality. Com/document/o. L . 1 . HTML #2 – A market segment is simply a group of customers who have common requirements for a product or a service. Below you will see four tourist market segments that you would like to attempt to attract to your hotel: 1) Business – Name two out of the top three influences that are present in each of the business traveler’s decision making process. Why are these so important to the equines traveler? ) Families – Name the three least influential factors in why a family will choose your Hotel over another. 3) International Affluent Mature. How to cite Google Books, Papers

Cons of Judicial Review free essay sample

Judicial review is unlike almost every other aspect of the American legal and legislative processes. It’s different for several reasons, but it is most unique in the sense that it was put into practice before it was put in to the books as law. It was instituted by Chief Justice John Marshall in 1803’s landmark case Marbury v. Madison. Judicial review has been around for over 200 years, and it still draws as much criticism today as it did the day it was instituted. John Marshall was Chief Justice of the Supreme Court for 34 years and presided over some of the most important and famous trials in our country’s history, trials such as McCulloch v. Maryland, Cohens v. Virginia, and perhaps most infamously, the Aaron Burr treason trial. But all of these cases pale in comparison to the impact of Marbury v. Madison, both then and now. In ruling that Congress does not have the power to change an opinion of the court, and that the Constitution supersedes any act of Congress it is in conflict with (in this case the Judiciary Act of 1789), Marshall perhaps forever changed the course of law in America. We will write a custom essay sample on Cons of Judicial Review or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Marshall’s decision in Marbury was formed not by the facts of the case, but rather whether he had the jurisdiction to hear the case at all. The case went directly to the Supreme Court because Marbury was seeking a writ of mandamus and the Judiciary Act of 1789 states that the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in such cases. Article III of the Constitution, however, lists situations in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction and writ on mandamus cases are not one of the situations given. Given these facts, it was Marshall’s â€Å"emphatic and provincial duty† to say what the law of the land should be. He ruled that the Constitution is the supreme law of the land and that judges shall not enforce a law they deem to be unconstitutional. The decision in Marbury v. Madison sent immediate and long reaching shock waves through the U. S. , and with good reason. With one decision on what seemed to be a relatively routine case, John Marshall was able to put the Supreme Court, and as such the entire judicial branch, on equal footing with the legislative and executive branches, placing them firmly into the American political process. This new-found strength and importance was met with resistance and resentment at the time, animosity which still exists in some circles today. In my opinion, judicial review is one of the key responsibilities of the Supreme Court, as it is a sort of ‘safety net’ to keep the law from running to any extreme; or away from the Constitution, hich states the principals on which our country was built. As seen in U. S. v. Carolene Products Co. it helps to protect groups of minorities (whether physical or ideological) from a majority trying to over rule them. There are, however, many critics of judicial review who feel it provides a group that is supposed to be neutral a chance to have the final say on issues that are often times divisive. According to them, it is not the duty of the court to shape the law, but rather simply enforce it. The thought that a group of people who are appointed for life and face no real consequences for their decisions can overrule the elected officials doing the will of the people is, in their mind, wrong. They believe that the decisions made today should not be forced to conform to a maddingly vague, centuries-old document. There is also the rather ironic argument that judicial review, in and of itself, is unconstitutional. Nowhere in the Constitution is the power of judicial review given to the courts, and for some that leads to charges of hypocrisy. How can the decisions the court makes on the constitutionality of a law be considered binding, when there is nothing saying the Supreme Court’s word is final. By instituting judicial review, John Marshall was able to give his branch of government, which was at the time the weakest, the final say in all matters pertaining to the law and in essence, all matters of life in the U. S. His ideals have stood the test of time, and will continue to be the way our country is run for a long time to come. Love it or hate it, judicial review is going nowhere.

American Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century Essay Example

American Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century Essay In political science studies, it is not often that one reads of American Imperialism. The term imperialism is almost exclusively associated with colonial exploits of major European powers such as Britain, France and Germany in the West; and China and Japan in the East. Although a late joiner of the imperial club, the United States is by far the most dominant in this group. With the entity called the United States of America having emerged only toward the end of the eighteenth century, it was only in the subsequent centuries it meaningfully expressed its imperial goals. The perception of the United States as an imperialist state was first mooted in the early part of the nineteenth century and the outbreak of the Spanish-American war in 1898 confirmed this fact. Indeed, the final years of the 19th century saw the peaking of American imperialist aggression as it occupied Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippine Islands – the latter two eventually becoming American colonies. (Len s Zinn, 2003) The early indicators of imperialist tendency can be found in the founding documents of the country. Even luminaries such as Thomas Jefferson have articulated an imperialist vision for the United States in no unclear terms. The annexation of Louisiana in the eighteenth century is seen as the first act of this vision. During the nineteenth century, the U.S.’ foreign policy was largely confined to the American continent, with Central and Southern American regions being focal points. As is typical of imperialist propaganda, convoluted justifications were given for aggressive foreign policy. It was stated that lands of ‘semi-civilized’ and ‘primitive’ peoples were occupied in order to bring Western civilization (which is supposedly superior) to these lands. Empire expansion was also projected as benign and compassionate, for Christian missionary work was invariably associated with it. Propaganda also had it that the standards of living of subjects o f the empire will eventually rise. On the whole, imperialist enterprise was promoted using these vapid and empty slogans and motives. (Lens Zinn, 2003) We will write a custom essay sample on American Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on American Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on American Imperialism in the Nineteenth Century specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Recognizing the duplicity and dubiousness of these claims, intellectuals both within and outside the country started expressing their discontent. The ruthlessness and gruesomeness with which Filipino uprising was crushed evoked shock and anger among some of America’s illustrious citizens including Andrew Carnegie and William James. It is in this context that they founded American Anti-Imperialist League in 1899. â€Å"We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty and tends toward militarism, an evil from which it has been our glory to be free. We regret that it has become necessary in the land of Washington and Lincoln to reaffirm that all men, of whatever race or color, are entitled to life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. We maintain that governments derive their just powers from the consent of the governed. We insist that the subjugation of any people is â€Å"criminal aggression† and open disloyalty to the distinctive principles of our Government.† ( Platform of the American Anti-imperialist League, 1913, p.77) The League might have been promoted by well-known leaders of the American cultural landscape, but it had the backing of numerous lesser-known liberals. The identification of American foreign policy as imperialist might seem politically radical for a modern reader, but during the 19th century there was a vibrant Left-Liberal tradition in American political discourse. Trade unions could be formed and collective rights could be demanded. There was also a thriving working class press, which articulated the concerns and preoccupations of newly arriving immigrants and ethnic minorities. But eventually, dissenting voices would be marginalized or disregarded, as the nation marched ahead with its imperialist vision. As the new century ushered and geo-political power equations changed, America seized its moment to emerge as a global superpower. American involvement in WWI was minimal as it saw the war as a dispute internal to Europe. But with Hitler’s Third Reich threatening to m onopolize power, United States was forced to ally with Britain and Russia to defeat Axis powers. (Field, 1978, p.659) Far from being an act of charity, the defeat of Nazism and Fascism created unprecedented opportunities for the expansion of American empire. With the fall of Soviet Union in 1989, the last substantive resistance to its imperialist agenda has been removed. But the seeds for this foreign policy direction was first evidenced during late 19th century. References: â€Å"Platform of the American Anti ­lmperialist League,† in Speeches, Correspondence, ard Political Papers of Carl Schurz, vol. 6, ed. Frederick Bancroft (New York: G.P. Putnam’s Sons, 1913), p. 77, note 1., retrieved from Field, James A., Jr. (June 1978). â€Å"American Imperialism: The Worst Chapter in Almost Any Book†. The American Historical Review 83 (3): 659. Lens, Sidney; Zinn, Howard (2003). The Forging of the American Empire: From the Revolution to Vietnam: A History of American Imperialism. Plkuto press. ISBN 0745321003. In political science studies, it is not often that one reads of American Imperialism. The term imperialism is almost exclusively associated with colonial exploits of major European powers such as Britain, France and Germany in the West; and China and Japan in the East. Although a late joiner of the imperial club, the United States is by far the most dominant in this group. With the entity called the United States of America having emerged only toward the end of the eighteenth century, it was only in the subsequent centuries it meaningfully expressed its imperial goals. The perception of the United States as an imperialist state was first mooted in the early part of the nineteenth century and the outbreak of the Spanish-American war in 1898 confirmed this fact. Indeed, the final years of the 19th century saw the peaking of American imperialist aggression as it occupied Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Philippine Islands – the latter two eventually becoming American .

The Tiger on the mountain

The Tiger on the mountain "Mom, you said last time was the last time" "But I thought you liked it" "Mom, you go to a boot camp and see if you like it!" I was begging my mom to let me stay home from the survival hike to the Odae Mountain in Korea. I dreaded going because of the insane guide that led the expedition, his name was Mr. Kim. He demanded his students to refer to him as 'sir', and if we didn't, we were punished. Among the slaves, we refer to him as the Bengal Tiger.He was straight out of my nightmares. He was virtually indestructible. I was convinced that he had three sets of eyes that never blinked. He always knew everything we were up to all the time. If I stopped for even a second, I would hear his roar.He was the kind of guy that inspired fear and demanded respect.Klausen Pass (el. 1948 m.) is a high mountain pass...One look at his muscular body and his snow-white hair made me feel like an ant on a picnic blanket. He was apparently in his 60's but he could have fooled anyone. He was strong as a t iger.It was not really a boot camp, but it was in a way, since he yelled like it was a cussing competition. I do not think I could even remember half of the horrors we went through. It would be impossible for me to recall all of the times that he made me feel useless. I spent countless nights clutching my sheets in fear of what the next day would hold.When I was very young, my mother decided that I needed to experience the world and all it had to offer. What she did not know was that she was sending her defenseless 9-year-old child out into the...

Trade Pattern between developed(the U.S.) and developing(South Korea) Term Paper

Trade Pattern between developed(the U.S.) and developing(South Korea) countries - Term Paper Example Even though the U. S has a trade discrepancy with South Korea, it has had a reliable trade surplus of approximately $2 billion to $3 billion in agricultural goods (Carbaugh 213)1. South Korea is the tenth greatest economy in the globe, with a yearly annual GDP fast approaching one trillion US dollars (Todaro 314)2. While it was the seventh biggest export market for the US in 2004, U. S was South Korea’s third largest trading partner and the second largest export market in 2005. In addition, South Korea is the fifth biggest market for the U.S agricultural export and the United States provides more than one fifth of South Korea’s agricultural imports. This paper looks at the characteristics of the United States-South Korea bilateral trade and offers an overview of the tariff reduction as well as elimination schedules of the two countries (Eckes 311)3. Characteristics The main mode of the US-South Korea mutual trade has moved from inter-industry trade to intra-industry tra de. Specifically, the trade model was inter–industry trade on the foundation of divergence in resource donations before 1994. The US exported intensive and natural resource-founded industry goods and technology, as well as capital-concentrated products to South Korea and imported labor-concentrated goods from that nation (Buckley et al. 341)4. Nevertheless, intra-industry trade between the two nations has increased notably in the high technology product sector since 1995. A key rise in trade of high-technology goods between the two nations shows the surge in bilateral intra-industry trade founded on good differentiation. The two nations have also raised their bilateral trade in differentiation mid-technology goods. Comparisons between trade volume and trade surpluses, by sector, can offer insight on bilateral trade patterns between the two nations. In this paper, US-Korea bilateral trade is looked at in six sectors. Agriculture and food, natural resource based industries, tex tiles, mid technology goods, high-technology goods among others. The sectors are determined on the basis of standard international trade classification two-digit code. The agric-food sector includes primary agricultural goods and processed food (Lo?pez 648)5. The natural sector comprises of gas, coal, wood and petroleum products among others. The mid section comprises of fertilizers, chemical materials, non-ferrous metals as well as furniture. The high-tech section has machinery, scientific instruments and transport instruments. The others comprise of the transaction services. The US has trade surpluses and South Korea is in the food and agriculture sector, and until lately, the natural resource-based industries. The US has a trade deficit and South Korea in the high technology section, which has grown with time. The US also has a trade shortage with South Korea in the textile section; however this deficit has declined with time. Indeed, both US imports and exports of textile produc ts have declined ever since 1990, owing to the third country impact in the market. Since other nations like Thailand, China, Indonesia, as well as Latin American nations have become very competitive in the manufacture of textile products, both the US and South Korea have raised their imports of these commodities from these nations. For the middle-technology section,

Components of Consumer Information Processing Case Study

Components of Consumer Information Processing - Case Study Example As a consumer, I consider myself a more of utilitarian than hedonic. This mean whenever I am shopping I always aim at maximizing utility. I view shopping as a task which I have to program first, then conduct a proper search in order to get the a product or a service with desired specifications to satisfy my need. I normally seek functional, instrumental, and practical benefits. A recent Study on why people go shopping has revealed that shopping experience can provide to the consumer with a combination of both utilitarian value and hedonic value. Utilitarian value is task oriented and cognitive in nature. On the other hand, hedonic value is tied to the emotional aspect of the shopping experience. A consumer perceive a utilitarian value if they acquire they acquire product that necessitated their shopping trip, while at the same time perceive hedonic value if they enjoyment of the shopping experience. For these reason although I put more emphasis on maximizing a product utility, I also enjoy a shopping experience that offer both utilitarian and hedonic value satisfaction. The components of the consumer information processing are important to the business in various aspects. First, it is important to note that the volume of sales as well as the profitability of the business depends on the consumer buying behavior. These components include the exposure stages, retention, yielding, comprehension, and the attention. The exposure component triggers the stimuli of the consumer to acquire the product. The information processing is important to the business in that attracts the attention of many consumers hence the customer base of the organization is bound to increase significantly (Roy and Ian 372). It facilitates the provision of the necessary information to the consumers and thus, helps the consumer in making decision to buy the product. It provides the clear image of the product whilst providing the consumer with information regarding